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TOEFL-style academic word list

Academic words used in textbooks and lectures, of the kind found in TOEFL-style reading practice: allocate, hypothesis, mechanism, criteria. 248 words with meanings and example sentences.

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abstract adj

existing as an idea rather than as a physical thing. Justice is an abstract idea, but a courtroom is a place you can walk into.

abundant adj

existing in large amounts; more than enough. Fresh water was abundant in the valley, so the village never ran short.

accumulate verb

to gather or build up over time. Dust will accumulate on any shelf that is never cleaned.

accurate adj

correct in every detail. The map was so accurate that we found the cave without asking anyone.

acquire verb

to gain or obtain something, often through effort. Children acquire language by listening long before they speak.

adapt verb

to change so as to suit new conditions. Some animals adapt quickly when their habitat changes.

adequate adj

good enough for a particular need. Three hours is adequate time to finish the exam.

adjacent adj

next to or very near something. The library is adjacent to the town hall.

advocate verb

to publicly support a cause or plan. Doctors advocate regular exercise for people of all ages.

aggregate noun

a total formed by adding many parts together. The aggregate of the scores decided the winner.

allocate verb

to give out a share of something for a particular use. The council will allocate more money to the library next year.

ambiguous adj

having more than one possible meaning. The sign was ambiguous, so half the tourists turned left and half turned right.

analogy noun

a comparison that shows how two things are alike. The teacher used an analogy between a heart and a pump.

analyze verb

to examine something closely in order to understand it. The team will analyze the results before writing the report.

anticipate verb

to expect something and prepare for it. Good chess players anticipate their opponent's next move.

apparent adj

easy to see or understand; seeming to be true. It was apparent from her smile that the news was good.

appropriate adj

suitable for a particular situation. Formal clothes are appropriate for the ceremony.

approximate adj

close to the exact amount but not precise. The approximate height of the tower is ninety meters.

arbitrary adj

based on whim or chance rather than reason. The rule seemed arbitrary because nobody could explain the reasoning behind it.

aspect noun

one part or feature of something. Cost is only one aspect of the decision.

assert verb

to state something firmly and with confidence. She continued to assert that the data were correct.

assess verb

to judge the quality, size or value of something. Inspectors came to assess the damage after the storm.

assume verb

to accept something as true without proof. Do not assume the shop is open on a holiday.

attain verb

to succeed in reaching or achieving something. Few climbers attain the summit in winter.

attribute verb

to regard something as caused by or belonging to a person or thing. Scientists attribute the rise in sea level to melting ice.

authority noun

the power to give orders or make decisions. Only the manager has the authority to approve refunds.

bias noun

an unfair leaning toward or against something. The judge stepped aside from the case because of a clear bias.

candid adj

frank and honest, even when the truth is uncomfortable. She gave a candid answer about why the project had failed.

capacity noun

the amount something can hold, or the ability to do something. The stadium has a capacity of fifty thousand people.

catastrophe noun

a sudden event that causes great damage or suffering. The flood was a catastrophe for the small town.

categorize verb

to put things into groups according to type. Librarians categorize books by subject.

cautious adj

careful to avoid danger or mistakes. He was cautious on the icy path and tested each step.

chronological adj

arranged in the order in which things happened. The museum displays the tools in chronological order.

circulate verb

to move around a closed path, or to pass from person to person. Blood can circulate through the whole body in about a minute.

clarify verb

to make something easier to understand. Could you clarify what you meant by that last sentence?

coherent adj

logical, consistent and easy to follow. Her argument was coherent from the first sentence to the last.

coincide verb

to happen at the same time. The festival will coincide with the school holidays.

collaborate verb

to work together with others on a shared task. The two schools collaborate on a science fair every spring.

collapse verb

to fall down or fail suddenly. The old roof could collapse under heavy snow.

commence verb

to begin or start. The ceremony will commence at noon.

compensate verb

to make up for a loss or pay someone for harm. The company agreed to compensate the families for the damage.

compile verb

to collect information and put it together. Students compile a list of sources for their reports.

complement verb

to go well with something and make it complete. The sour sauce will complement the sweet fruit.

component noun

one of the parts that make up a whole. The battery is the most expensive component of the device.

comprehensive adj

covering everything that matters; thorough. The guidebook gives a comprehensive overview of the region.

comprise verb

to be made up of. The committee will comprise five teachers and four parents.

conceive verb

to form an idea or plan in the mind. It is hard to conceive of a world without electricity.

concise adj

giving a lot of information in few words. A concise summary fits on a single page.

conduct verb

to organize and carry out an activity. Researchers conduct tests in a sealed laboratory.

conflict noun

a serious disagreement or struggle. The conflict between the two towns lasted for years.

confront verb

to face a problem or person directly. She decided to confront the problem before it grew worse.

consecutive adj

following one after another without a break. It rained for five consecutive days.

consequence noun

a result or effect of an earlier action. Missing the bus had an unexpected consequence: he met his future friend on the walk.

considerable adj

fairly large in size, amount or importance. The project saved a considerable amount of money.

consistent adj

always behaving or happening in the same way. Her consistent effort improved her scores month after month.

constitute verb

to form or make up a whole. Twelve months constitute a year.

constrain verb

to limit or restrict what someone can do. A small budget will constrain the choices available to the team.

consume verb

to use up, eat or drink. Large cities consume enormous amounts of energy.

contemplate verb

to think about something deeply. He sat by the river to contemplate his next step.

contemporary adj

belonging to the present time; or living at the same time as another. The museum shows contemporary art next to older works.

context noun

the situation or words around something that give it meaning. A word's meaning often depends on its context.

contradict verb

to say the opposite of something, or be in conflict with it. The new data contradict the old theory.

contrast noun

a clear difference seen when two things are compared. The contrast between the quiet village and the busy city surprised her.

controversy noun

a public argument about something many people disagree on. The new law caused a controversy in the town.

convert verb

to change something from one form or use to another. Engineers convert waste heat into electricity.

convey verb

to make an idea or feeling known. A single photograph can convey a powerful message.

correspond verb

to match or be closely connected with something. The numbers on the map correspond to the entries in the key.

criteria noun

the standards used to judge or decide something. The main criteria for the prize are originality and effort.

crucial adj

extremely important; decisive. Sleep is crucial for learning new skills.

cultivate verb

to prepare land for crops, or to develop a skill or habit. Farmers cultivate rice in the flooded fields.

cycle noun

a series of events that repeat in the same order. The water cycle moves water from the sea to the clouds and back.

deduce verb

to reach a conclusion by reasoning from known facts. From the muddy boots, she deduced that he had walked through the field.

define verb

to state the exact meaning of something. The glossary will define each technical term.

deliberate adj

done on purpose; carefully planned. The pause was deliberate: she wanted the audience to think.

deprive verb

to take something away from someone. A lack of sleep can deprive you of your best thinking.

derive verb

to obtain something from a source. Many English words derive from Latin.

device noun

a tool or machine made for a particular purpose. The small device measures the temperature of the soil.

dimension noun

a measurement such as length, width or height. Measure each dimension of the room before buying the carpet.

dispute noun

an argument or disagreement. The dispute over the fence lasted for years.

distinct adj

clearly different or separate from others. The two bird species have distinct songs.

distribute verb

to give out or spread among many people or places. Volunteers distribute food to local families every Friday.

diverse adj

made up of many different kinds. The club has a diverse membership, from students to retirees.

domain noun

an area of knowledge, activity or control. Chemistry is outside my domain of expertise.

dominant adj

most powerful or most common in a group or situation. English is the dominant language in international aviation.

duration noun

the length of time something lasts. The duration of the film is about two hours.

dynamic adj

full of energy and constant change. The city's dynamic economy attracts workers from many countries.

elaborate adj

very detailed and carefully worked out. They made elaborate plans for the surprise party.

eliminate verb

to get rid of something completely. The new system will eliminate most of the paperwork.

emerge verb

to come out or become known. A pattern began to emerge as more data arrived.

emphasize verb

to give special importance to something. The coach tried to emphasize teamwork over personal glory.

enable verb

to make it possible for someone to do something. New software will enable doctors to share records instantly.

enhance verb

to make something better or stronger. Good lighting can enhance the look of a small room.

enormous adj

extremely large. An enormous crowd gathered in the square.

ensure verb

to make certain that something happens. Check the locks to ensure that the house is secure.

equate verb

to regard one thing as equal to another. Do not equate speed with skill.

erode verb

to wear away gradually. Wind and rain slowly erode the cliffs.

essential adj

absolutely necessary. Water is essential for all living things.

estimate verb

to guess the size or value of something from the information you have. Engineers estimate that the bridge will take two years to build.

evaluate verb

to form a judgement about the value or quality of something. Teachers evaluate each essay against the same checklist.

evident adj

easily seen or understood. It was evident from her smile that the news was good.

evolve verb

to develop gradually over time. Languages evolve as people use them in new ways.

exaggerate verb

to describe something as larger or more serious than it is. He tends to exaggerate how far he walks to school.

exclude verb

to keep out or leave out. The price does not exclude delivery.

exhibit verb

to show something in public. Local artists will exhibit their paintings in the hall.

expand verb

to become or make larger. Metal will expand when it is heated.

expose verb

to uncover or leave open to something. Do not expose the photographs to direct sunlight.

external adj

on the outside; coming from outside. The external walls were painted white.

extract verb

to remove or take out. Workers extract salt from the sea in shallow pools.

facilitate verb

to make a process easier. A good chair will facilitate the discussion instead of dominating it.

factor noun

something that helps to produce a result. Weather was a major factor in the team's late arrival.

feasible adj

possible to do; practical. Building the bridge in a year is feasible if the weather helps.

flexible adj

able to bend or change easily. A flexible timetable lets students work at their own pace.

fluctuate verb

to rise and fall without a steady pattern. Prices fluctuate with the seasons.

function noun

the purpose or job of a thing. The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body.

fundamental adj

forming the basic part of something. Reading fluently is fundamental to every other subject.

generate verb

to produce or cause something to exist. Wind turbines generate electricity without burning fuel.

gradual adj

happening slowly and in small steps. There has been a gradual rise in temperature.

guarantee verb

to promise that something will happen or be true. The shop will guarantee the repair for a year.

hazard noun

something that could cause danger or harm. A wet floor is a hazard to anyone walking by.

hence adv

for this reason; as a result. The road was flooded, hence the long delay.

hierarchy noun

a system that ranks people or things from highest to lowest. The company has a clear hierarchy, from interns to the director.

hypothesis noun

an idea put forward to be tested. Her hypothesis was that plants grow faster with more light.

hypothetical adj

based on an imagined situation rather than a real one. She gave a hypothetical example to explain the rule.

identical adj

exactly the same in every detail. The twins wore identical coats.

illustrate verb

to explain or show something using examples or pictures. The chart illustrates how prices rose over ten years.

impact noun

a strong effect on something. The new road had a big impact on local trade.

implement verb

to put a plan or decision into action. The school will implement the new schedule in September.

implication noun

a likely result, or something suggested but not said. The report's implication is that costs will rise.

imply verb

to suggest something without saying it directly. His silence seemed to imply that he disagreed.

impose verb

to force something on people. The city plans to impose a limit on traffic.

incentive noun

something that encourages a person to act. A bonus is a strong incentive to work harder.

incorporate verb

to include something as part of a whole. The design will incorporate solar panels.

indicate verb

to show or point out. Dark clouds often indicate that rain is coming.

inevitable adj

certain to happen; unavoidable. With so little preparation, failure was inevitable.

infer verb

to work out something from evidence rather than being told. We can infer from the wet pavement that it rained overnight.

infrastructure noun

the basic systems a place needs, such as roads, power and water. Good infrastructure helps a town's businesses grow.

inherent adj

existing as a natural, permanent part of something. Some risk is inherent in any adventure.

inhibit verb

to hold back or slow the growth of something. Deep shade can inhibit the growth of grass.

initial adj

happening at the beginning; first. Her initial reaction was surprise, and anger came later.

initiate verb

to start something. The mayor will initiate a recycling programme next month.

innovate verb

to introduce new ideas or methods. Companies that innovate often lead their markets.

insight noun

a deep and clear understanding of something. The book offers real insight into how bees live.

integral adj

necessary as a basic part of something. Music is an integral part of the festival.

integrate verb

to combine parts into a whole. The app will integrate maps, tickets and timetables.

intense adj

very strong or extreme. The heat was so intense that the paint blistered.

interact verb

to communicate with or affect one another. Visitors can interact with the exhibits by touching them.

interpret verb

to explain the meaning of something. Two critics can interpret the same poem in opposite ways.

interval noun

a space of time or distance between two things. There was a short interval between the two acts.

invest verb

to put money, time or effort into something for a later benefit. Many families invest in education for their children.

isolate verb

to separate something from others. Doctors isolate patients with infections to stop them spreading.

justify verb

to show or prove that something is reasonable. She had to justify every cost in the budget.

linear adj

arranged in a straight line, or developing in simple steps. The film is not linear; it jumps between past and present.

maintain verb

to keep something in good condition or at the same level. Regular exercise helps maintain a healthy heart.

mature adj

fully grown or developed. A mature oak can live for hundreds of years.

mechanism noun

a system of parts, or a process, that works to produce an effect. The lock's mechanism is hidden inside the door.

mediate verb

to help two sides reach an agreement. A neutral teacher was asked to mediate the argument.

merge verb

to combine into one. The two rivers merge before reaching the sea.

methodology noun

a system of methods used in a study or activity. The report explains the methodology behind the survey.

migrate verb

to move from one region to another, often with the seasons. Many birds migrate south before winter.

minimal adj

as small in amount as possible. The storm caused minimal damage to the village.

modify verb

to change something slightly. They had to modify the plan when the budget was cut.

monitor verb

to watch and check something over a period of time. Nurses monitor the patient's heart rate through the night.

mutual adj

felt or done by each toward the other. They have a mutual respect for one another.

negligible adj

so small that it is not worth considering. The difference in cost was negligible.

norm noun

the usual or expected way of doing things. Working from home has become the norm for many people.

notion noun

an idea, belief or understanding. He had a vague notion of how the machine worked.

objective adj

based on facts, not personal feelings. A good judge stays objective and weighs the evidence.

obscure adj

not well known; or hard to understand. The author was obscure until her third novel became a hit.

obsolete adj

no longer used because something better exists. Film cameras became almost obsolete once phones took good pictures.

obtain verb

to get something, especially by asking or trying. You must obtain a permit before building a fence.

obvious adj

easy to see or understand. The answer was obvious once she saw the whole diagram.

occupy verb

to fill or take up space, time or attention. The new exhibit will occupy the entire first floor.

outcome noun

the way something turns out. Nobody could predict the outcome of the vote.

overlap verb

to cover part of the same area or time. The two courses overlap in their first month.

paradigm noun

a typical pattern or model of something. The discovery created a new paradigm in physics.

parallel adj

going in the same direction and always the same distance apart. The railway runs parallel to the river.

persist verb

to continue firmly despite difficulty. If the cough persists, see a doctor.

perspective noun

a particular way of thinking about something. Travel gave him a wider perspective on life.

phenomenon noun

something that can be observed to happen, especially something unusual. The northern lights are a natural phenomenon seen near the poles.

plausible adj

seeming reasonable or likely to be true. The excuse sounded plausible until we checked the dates.

policy noun

a plan of action agreed by a group or government. The school has a strict policy on homework.

potential noun

the possibility of future growth or success. The young player has real potential.

precise adj

exact and careful in detail. The recipe needs precise measurements.

predict verb

to say what will happen in the future. Meteorologists predict heavy rain by Friday.

preliminary adj

coming before the main part. Preliminary results suggest the treatment works.

presume verb

to suppose something is true without proof. I presume you have already eaten.

prevalent adj

widespread at a particular time or place. Colds are most prevalent in winter.

primary adj

most important; main. The primary reason for the delay was a lack of staff.

principle noun

a basic rule or truth that guides thinking or behavior. The principle of fairness applies to everyone.

priority noun

something that is more important than others. Safety is our first priority.

procedure noun

a set of steps for doing something. Follow the correct procedure when you leave the building.

prohibit verb

to forbid something by rule or law. The rules prohibit phones in the exam room.

promote verb

to support or help something to grow. Exercise helps promote good health.

proportion noun

a part of a whole, or the relationship between two amounts. A large proportion of the students walk to school.

prospect noun

a possibility or something expected in the future. The prospect of rain spoiled our picnic plans.

radical adj

very different from the usual; extreme. The inventor proposed a radical change to the engine.

ratio noun

the relationship between two amounts. The ratio of boys to girls in the class is even.

rational adj

based on clear thinking rather than feeling. She made a rational choice after comparing the costs.

regulate verb

to control by rules or by adjusting. A thermostat helps regulate the temperature of a house.

reinforce verb

to make stronger, especially by adding support. Workers reinforce the walls with steel bars.

reluctant adj

not willing; hesitant. He was reluctant to speak in front of the whole school.

resolve verb

to find a solution to a problem or disagreement. They met to resolve the scheduling conflict.

resource noun

something useful that can be used, such as water or time. Fresh water is a precious resource.

restore verb

to bring back to a former condition. Experts will restore the old painting to its original colors.

restrict verb

to keep within limits; to reduce freedom or amount. The council voted to restrict parking on the narrow street.

retain verb

to keep or continue to have. The old building will retain its original doors.

reveal verb

to make something known or visible that was hidden. The survey will reveal which subjects students enjoy most.

reverse verb

to change to the opposite direction or position. The court may reverse the earlier decision.

scarce adj

not enough in supply; hard to find. Fresh water is scarce in the desert.

scheme noun

a plan or system for doing something. The town started a scheme to plant ten thousand trees.

sector noun

a distinct part of an economy or society. The technology sector hired thousands of workers last year.

sequence noun

a series of things that follow one another in a set order. Follow the sequence of steps shown in the diagram.

shift noun

a change in position, direction or way of thinking. There has been a shift in opinion since last year.

significant adj

important or large enough to matter. There was a significant drop in noise after the road was repaired.

simulate verb

to copy the conditions or behavior of something. The software can simulate a flight in stormy weather.

sole adj

being the only one. The sole survivor of the voyage told the story.

specific adj

clearly stated or particular rather than general. Please give a specific reason for your choice.

stable adj

firm and not likely to change or fall. The table is stable now that the leg is fixed.

strategy noun

a careful plan for achieving a goal. Our strategy is to save a little money each month.

structure noun

the way parts are arranged to form a whole. The structure of the essay is easy to follow.

subsequent adj

coming after something else. Subsequent studies confirmed the first findings.

substitute verb

to use one thing in place of another. You can substitute honey for sugar in this recipe.

sufficient adj

as much as is needed. Is there sufficient food for everyone?

supplement noun

something added to complete or improve a thing. She takes a vitamin supplement in the winter.

survive verb

to continue to live or exist after danger. Some desert plants survive months without rain.

sustain verb

to keep something going over time. The small farm can sustain a family of four.

symbol noun

something that stands for an idea or thing. A dove is a symbol of peace.

technique noun

a particular way of doing something skilled. The painter used a new technique to blend the colors.

temporary adj

lasting for only a limited time. The bridge is a temporary solution until a new one is built.

tendency noun

a likelihood to behave or develop in a certain way. Plants have a tendency to grow toward the light.

theory noun

an idea or set of ideas used to explain facts. Darwin's theory explained how species change over time.

thesis noun

a main idea or argument put forward and defended. The author's thesis is that cities help people thrive.

tradition noun

a belief or practice handed down over generations. Lighting candles is a tradition in many cultures.

transform verb

to change completely in form or appearance. A fresh coat of paint can transform a room.

transmit verb

to pass or send from one place or person to another. Mosquitoes can transmit disease from one person to another.

trend noun

a general direction in which something is changing. There is a trend toward smaller families.

ultimate adj

final or most important of all. The ultimate goal is a cleaner river.

undergo verb

to experience or be put through something. The old bridge will undergo repairs this summer.

uniform adj

the same in all parts or at all times. The bricks were of uniform size.

utilize verb

to make practical use of something. Students can utilize the library after school.

valid adj

based on good reasons; acceptable. You have a valid point about the cost.

vary verb

to be different from one another, or to change from time to time. Prices vary from shop to shop.

vast adj

extremely large in size or amount. A vast desert lay between the two cities.

verify verb

to check that something is true or accurate. Please verify your address before you submit the form.

vital adj

needed for life or for success. Water is vital to every living thing.

volume noun

the amount of space something fills, or the loudness of sound. The volume of water in the tank is fifty liters.

widespread adj

found or happening over a large area. Concern about the flooding was widespread.

yield verb

to produce a result or a crop. The experiment did not yield the results the team expected.

Also: GRE-style vocabulary list · All words A to Z · By topic: People and character · Feelings and attitudes · Speaking, writing and arguing · Thinking and judging · Change, time and action · Size, amount and kind · Science and research · Society, work and rules

A practice aid only, made for fun and learning. These lists are not taken from any test, and we do not claim any word appears on any particular test.